Sociolinguistics Essay Essay Example for Free

Sociolinguistics Essay Essay INTRODUCTION The research paper deals with personal advertisements presented via the medium of the Internet. This kind of advertising is a relatively new genre because the medium of the Internet is not a very old phenomenon; therefore it is nearly unexplored. The following analysis of personal advertisements appears to be quite interesting as today personal advertisements represent one of the very popular and often used means providing possibility to meet new friends and potential life partners. Ads offer a rich source of written language, as well as research material. They usually facilitate in sending right messages to people of opposite gender identities on dating webpage. The most important goal of the research paper is to focus on the features of online dating from the point of view of gender differences. It tries to find out whether and how the differences between men and women influence the language of personal advertisements. It wants to explore whether some general gender stereotypes also occur in this new kind of personal advertisement. II. RESEARCH PROBLEMS In our society it is believed that men and women talk as they belonged to two different entities. Since personal advertisements are written by both sexes, the research paper tries to explore how language relates to gender and how stereotyped assumptions and beliefs are reflected in the text of online personal advertisements. The paper focuses on how men and women characterise themselves, as well as their potential partners, what kind of expressions they use for this purpose. From the viewpoint of gender stereotypes, the paper will concentrate on the issues of talkativeness and a hedges usage as it is presupposed that women will be more talkative and will use hedges more frequently. It is also presupposed that men will emphasise success in their self – description and appearance in their partner –description. Women are  presupposed to put greater emphasis on their appearance as well as on partner ´s success. 1 III. THEORETICAL PART 1. Advertisement in general 1.1.Role of advertisement Nowadays, advertisement is a usual part of everyday life. Wherever we are, ads are always surrounding us. We can see it everywhere: on TV, radio, newspapers, magazines, billboards, means of transport, the Internet or in public places. Its goal is to attract people  ´s attention and give information about some concrete product or service. The ultimate aim of ads is to persuade people to buy what is advertised. Information provided by the creators of the advertisement has a strong impact on the addressees, either negative or positive. Advertisement is very often rejected and invokes passionate discussions. However, thanks to it, people or companies can quickly inform about their products or services in a very easy way. 1.2.Language of advertisement A great variety of advertisements for different subjects emerges on the market, ads for e.g.: products, services, ideas or images of organizations, charities, companies, individuals. Language of present advertisements is special. It tries to attract possible customers or addressees and focuses on their attention and consciousness to influence them positively. „ Ads use fictions, word play, compressed storytelling, stylized acting, photography, cartoons, puns, and rhythms in ways which are often memorable, enjoyable and amusing. The word and details of ads often come to people ´s minds more readily than those of novels and poems and plays, and they are often recalled with more laughter and enthusiasmâ€Å" (Cook, 2003, p. 3). It can be said that language used in advertisements plays a very important role. It is obvious that the more extraordinary, peculiar, interesting and original the advertisement is, the greater chance it has to draw addressees ´Ã‚  attention and to go deeply into their subconscious. 2. Personal advertisement 2.1. The role of the advertisement As any kind of advertisement, personal ads are part of everyday life. They can be seen in all media; mainly on the Internet and print media. Personal advertisements serve for the purpose of communication between people. The primary aim is to catch attention of an ideal partner. The 2 options for creating personal ads are limited as their writers depend on the space given and words expressing their intention. 2.2. Language of personal advertisement As it was said, language of advertisement is very specific, especially language of personal advertisements. â€Å"Communication adaptation theory (CAT) (Burgoon, Stern, Dillman, 1995; Giles, Coupland, Coupland, 1991) holds that individuals vary their language choices within interactions, depending on their social goals. Thus, speakers may choose to emphasize (or deemphasize) particular aspects of their identities as a way of aligning with (or distancing from) interaction partnersâ€Å" (http://pdfcast.org/pdf/enacting-gender-identity-in-written-discourse- responding-to-gender-role-bidding-in-personal-ads, p.401,cited 30.11.2010) As Winn and Robin (ibid, cited 30.11.2010) continue, the writers of the personal ads regulate their self- presentations by means of language choice. On the other hand, prescribed requirements of e.g. space can have an influence on the way of writers ´ presentation. The authors of personal ads must be brief when they portray themselves. However, they also have to use such language means which help the writers to present elements of their identities that are supposed to be most important to finding partners. Therefore it is obvious that personal ads writers â€Å" will often converge with, or match, the speech patterns of their interlocutors† (ibid, p. 401, cited 30.11.2010). As the authors of article printed in a magazine Journal of language a social psychology point out, writers of personal ads construct their text and use such a vocabulary to be in harmony with what is preferred by their readers; â€Å" individuals are seen to adapt their language† (ibid, p. 401, cited 30.11.2010). 3. Gender differences Gender study appears to be not a very old discipline. It was introduced in the second half of the last century and explores the field of differences between men and women. It is generally assumed that women differ from men in many attributes. Nowadays, comments like woman will never understand man and vice versa nearly become a proverb. Of course, differences between women and men are of various types; however for the purpose of this research paper only difference concerning language use will be discussed. A theory dealing with issues of gender differences in using language is called sociolinguistic. Its major topic is â€Å" the connection between the structures, vocabularies, and ways 3 of using particular languages and the social roles of the men and women who speak these languages† (p. 315). 3.1. Gender and language Nowadays, linguists still have the same opinion that men and women differ in the language use. The distinction is partly caused by biological differences, e.g. a constitution of human brain depends on gender; however the fact is that women and men are also psychologically different, e.g. â€Å"women are more concerned with making connections; they seek involvement and focus on the interdependencies between people. Men are more concerned with autonomy and detachment; they seek independence and focus on hierarchical relationship† ( Boe qtd. In Holmes, 1995, p. 7). According to Coates ( 1993), usually, emotiveness is a typical feature of women, while rational thinking is characteristic attribute of men. Men put emphasis on success, efficiency, power and ability, whereas women regard as the most important relationship, feelings, family, and confidence. We can say, all these areas affect women ´s and men  ´s acting, their decision making, thinking, and their expressing of their emotions, needs and opinions. The distinctions mentioned can be reflected also in personal advertisements. 3.2. Cultural stereotypes and language Not only history and culture of the society but also gender differences influence the existence of certain persistent stereotypes in the society. There are some linguistic stereotypes  concerning communicative competence of men and women based on gender differences that are believed by almost each member of our society. According to Coates ( ibid ), each of us are familiar with linguistic stereotypes, like that â€Å" women talk more than men, that women â€Å"gossip†, that men swear more than women, that women are more polite and so on† ( Coates, 1993, p. 107). Coates mentions also other language areas in which women are distinct from men, which are â€Å"tag questions, hedges, commands and directives, taboo language, compliments, topic and topic development, formal versus informal language, and minimal responses† ( Coates, 1993, p. 114). 4 3.2.1. Talkativeness As for talkativeness, â€Å" there is a widespread belief in our society that women talk more than men† ( Coates, 1993, p. 115). In spoken language Coates calls this stereotype â€Å"verbosity† (Coates, 1993, p 114). Persistence of this stereotype is closely connected with the topic discussed. In societies, it is believed that women like to talk more about  ´trivial ´ topics, as family cooking or personal issues, and they avoid topics that could be titled  ´serious ´. The triviality of topics is usually connected with abundant usage of words. Coates points out another reason for persistence of this belief that is â€Å"different expectations of male and female speakers: while men have the right to talk, women are expected to remain silent. Then talking at any length can be viewed as talkativeness† ( Coates, 1993, p. 115). However; it should be emphasized that no research has proved this general belief (Coates, 1993). 3.2.2. Markers of hesitation, uncertainty As Coates (1993) says, women ´s speech is often viewed as  ´tentative ´. While men and women telling the same, women are supposed to use more features of hesitation like comment clauses, hedges, interjections, and pauses than men. According to Coates, hedges are â€Å"linguistic forms such as I think, I  ´m sure, you know, sort of and perhaps, maybe which express the speaker ´s certainty or uncertainty about the proposition under discussion† ( Coates, 1993, p. 116). The more frequent use of hedges can be a sign of possible women  ´s markers of hesitation based on some stereotypes again as showing of certainty or confidence during  conversation could be viewed as less feminine. This stereotype about women  ´s hesitation for the purpose to be feminine correlates also with another component of conversation, tag questions. 3.2.3 Asking questions, tag questions Concerning the question usage during a discussion, it is known that women often ask questions to keep conversation in process. As Holmes says, they usually ask â€Å"supportive elicitations† (Holmes, 1995, p. 43) to manifest interest and get deeper into a topic. The author continues and points out: â€Å"While women elicit more questions in private conversations, men tend to ask more queries in formal and public contexts† (Holmes, 1995, p 39). The reason why men use more questions in public places could be that they incline to be dominant in public as they are 5 generally more aggressive than women. Women differ from men also in the frequency of using tag questions. Preisler claims that â€Å"women use tag questions more often than men† ( Preisler qtd. in Coates, 1993, p. 119). 3.2.4. Topics of conversations As it was already mentioned, certain topics that are called  ´trivial ´ , such as relationships, family etc., are often applied to women and topics considered to be serious, such as politics, cars, technology, etc. are related to men ´s conversation. According to Coates (1993), for women an conversation serves for the purpose to share problems, consolidate relationships, gain experience or to offer support. On the other hand, for men an conversation means a source of information, giving advice and presenting knowledge. This different expectation very often leads to miscommunication between men and women. The linguistic differences between men and women can be represented also in personal advertisement. The style of personal ads reflects women ´s desires and ideas about men as well as men ´s wishes and needs concerning the opposite sex. 6 IV. PRACTICAL PART The practical part of the paper research will focus on the analysis of women ´s and men ´s advertisements, gender differences from the perspective of self- and partner-description, using hedges and talkativeness. 1. Methodology The sociolinguistic analysis was applied on the material of 40 personal advertisements presented on the web page www.datingdirect.co.uk that belong to the UK  ´s largest dating services. The corpus consists of 20 women ´s and 20 men ´s advertisements that were under a sociolinguistic analysis. The personal ads were chosen randomly. The age of respondents was between 35 and 45 including. All of the respondents came from Great Britain. Texts of all advertisements that underwent the analysis can be found in Appendix 1. 2. Analysis and results 2.1 Graphical arrangement of online personal advertisements The overall graphical arrangement of online personal advertisements on the web page www.datingdirect.co.uk is as follows: a) prescribed items with only one choice from the list, e.g. : relationship status, occupation, body type, height, hair colour, eyes, children, personality, country/residence, smoking, date of birth, education, ethnicity, I live†¦, my style, appearance, my best feature, political view, religion, romance, etc.; b) prescribed items with a multiple choice from the list, e.g.: entertainment, interests, sports, my taste in music, my favourite films, my pets, etc. ; c) prescribed partner ´s description with a multiple choice from the list, e.g.: relationship status, children, body type, personality, smoking, views on marriage, ethnicity, nationality, appearance, height, weight, hair, eyes, style, best features, education, occupation, religion, political view, interests, sports, films, income, etc.; d) fr ee-production part that is limited to maximum of 2000 characters, and where respondents write more about themselves and the partners they are looking for; this is the most important part of the personal advertisements as it serves as a material for the research paper sociolinguistic analysis. 7 There is also possibility to add photos on the web page. 2.2. Self – description of appearance 2.2.1. Women Focusing on the description of appearance, only six women depict their appearance (ads No. 1,2,4,5,7,20). As it is obvious from Figure 1, majority of the women (5 of them) put  emphasis on their overall impression rather than on describing single parts of their appearance. The words that are used for that purpose are: sexy (used 2 times); attractive (used one time); fit (used 2 times); pretty (used one time). Two women put emphasis on their hair. Both use the word blonde. Only one woman describes her eyes by using the expression blue eyed. In only two ads an emphasis is put on figure, which is described with the words curvy and slim. There is only one advertisement (advertisement No.7) where a woman depicts all categories which are mentioned above. â€Å"I am a pretty blue eyed blonde, slim†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Generally considered, women do not put great emphasis on descri bing their own appearance. Majority of the women, that is 13 of them, do not mention their appearance at all. Although we predicted that the appearance is considered to be significant for women to attract men  ´s attention, this prediction is not proved. 2.2.2. Men Concerning the description of their appearance, the men do not put a great emphasis on their appearance. Only four of them (ads No. 2,7,8,11) try to catch women  ´s attention by focusing on their look. They use adjectives good looking (1 time) and handsome (1 time) for describing of their overall appearance; expressions athletic (1 time) and in good shape (1 time) for their figure. As it can be obvious from the Figure 1, the men absolutely do not put an emphasis on their eyes or hair. One of the advertisements (No 9) is special concerning the way how a man describes himself. He chooses a totally different way how to attract a women  ´s attention. He does not say whether he is â€Å"handsome† or â€Å"ugly†. The author of this advertisement probably wants to stay mysterious as for his appearance and so to awaken a women  ´s interest: â€Å"I am no George Cloony but am not a Frank Galliger either† Generally considered, as we previously predicted, the men do not seem to put a greater emphasis on their appearance. 8 2.2.3. Differences in self – description of the appearance 80% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 70% 25% 10% 10% 10% 10% 0% 0% 5% women men Figure 1: Comparison of women ´s and men ´s self-description of their appearance Dealing with the appearance, Figure 1 illustrates the fact that neither women  nor men put emphasis on their own appearance. 70 % of the women and 80 % of the men do not describe their look at all. This fact does not correspond with the stereotype that appearance is very important for women. 2.3. Description of partner  ´s appearance 2.3.1. Women Concerning the description of partner’s appearance, only four women depict how their ideal partner should look like. They use general adjectives, such as attractive (used in No. 17); tall (used in No.16); handsome; and young-looking (both used in No 18). One woman puts emphasis on the partner  ´s eyes, as she uses expression attractive eyes (No 1) , and one women is even more specific in her description of an ideal partner as she writes :†¦. taller men, with nice teeth, 34/36 waist ( in No 16). An overall majority of the women (16 of them) do not mention their ideal partner  ´s appearance at all. 2.3.2. Men At the beginning of the analysis we assumed man will emphasise the appearance of their ideal partners. However; the analysis shows that only two men concentrate on the women ´s look. Those men who mention appearance of their partner use general adjectives such as attractive and slim: I am looking for someone slim and attractive (No 12); †¦someone †¦that†¦is attractive†¦(No 1) The rest of the men do not mention the women  ´s look at all. It seems men prefer other qualities rather than appearance of their ideal partners. 2.3.3. Differences in partner-description of the appearance 100% 80% 60% 40% 20% 0% 90% 80% 5% 10% 10% 0% 5% 0% 0% 5% women men Figure 2: Comparison of women ´s and men  ´s partner appearance description Focusing on the description of the ideal partner ´s appearance, the results are very similar in both groups. 80% of the women and 90% of the men do not mention how their ideal partner should look like at all. The stereotype that men emphasise the women  ´s appearance is not proved. 2.4. Self- description of qualities and personality 2.4.1. Women When creating a personal advertisement, to mention people ´s positive qualities seems to be a very important part. It is a useful way how to easily draw a potential partner ´s  attention. The authors of personal ads do it by various means, however; the most common is using adjectives that help to describe human qualities clearly and briefly. In the advertisements the women use a wide range of adjectives to depict their qualities and personality in the best way. More than 40 adjectives have been used for this purpose. The adjectives are divided into several groups expressing the same element of character: sense of humour; feminity; i ntellect; emancipation; moral qualities; social qualities; success; and others. Figure 3: Women  ´s description of their qualities and personality To compare description of appearance with the description of qualities and personality, only one woman do not put emphasis on description of her personality. It is obvious this part of personal ads is significant for the women. The most important qualities are those belonging to the categories of emancipation, sense of humour and feminity. Concerning the category of success that is connected with a good job, owning a car, or a house, the women to describe themselves as being successful do not use adjectives, but other expressions, such as †¦ I work hard, own my house and car †¦(No 10); †¦ I have a great job in advertising and media which I love. I work hard and long hours, †¦(No 12); or †¦ I have my own home car and good job so i am looking for the same(No16). 2.4.2. Men Focusing on men  ´s qualities and personalities, the men use approximately the same range of vocabulary as the women. They use more than 40 adjectives for the purpose to describe themselves from the point of personal qualities. Again, the adjectives are divided into several groups according to their meaning (see Appendix 3). The  following categories were possible to create: sense of humour; affectionate; intellect; moral qualities; social qualities; success; masculinity; others. Figure 4: Men  ´s description of their qualities and personality As it is obvious from the Figure 4, the vast majority, even 75% of the men, put emphasis on their success. This category includes not only adjectives, however other expressions, such as mentioning their profession, a successful career, owning a company, a car or a house:.. .i own a small yet busy painting and dec firm. .of which ive been doing for 15years now (No 4); I have a successful professional career that I enjoy (No 7); I own a plumbing and heating company (No 10); I have a couple of jobs firstly I head up an International Charity†¦(No 11); I have a fantastic job, Im financially solvent and I own my home own, which is located within a beautiful part of Wales (No 11). The men put great emphasis not only on their success; however they stress also such qualities that belong to the category  ´affectionate ´- even 55% of the men, which is very surprising. Six of the men depict themselves as caring, five of them as romantic, or three as hearted. By contrast, personal quali ties that are part of the group  ´masculinity ´ appear only in seven ads, which is 35%. 2.4.3. Differences in self-description of the personal qualities Concerning the qualities, some considerable differences have been found between men and women (see Figure 5). As it was predicted at the beginning of the analysis, women do not stress their success at all. It seems to be unimportant for them when they try to attract potential partners. Surprisingly, the women attach importance to the personal qualities that are part of the category  ´emancipation ´. They describe themselves as adventurous, confident, hardworking, down-to-earth, independent, or even strong. The women emphasise also their feminity. It is in 12 contrast with the appearance that the women consider being not so relevant for catching men ´s attention. They apparently try to attract more men by typical women ´s qualities as they depict themselves as feminine, warm, sensual, passionate, and caring. The women are may be persuaded that men desire to have such a women alongside. Unlike the women, the men put great emphasis on their success. For the men being successful seems to be rather significant for attracting an ideal partner. On the other hand, they do not stress their masculinity; however emphasise the qualities that soften their personality. Probably, they want to approach a women  ´s ideal of the perfect partner. As it was previously discussed in the theoretical part, the authors of personal ads write their text and use such a vocabulary to be in harmony with what is preferred by their readers. The men present elements of their identities that are supposed to be most important to finding partners. It can be an explanation why even 55% of the men stress the qualities belonging to the category  ´affectionate ´. 2.5. Use of hedges As it was already discussed in the theoretical part of this paper, hedges are markers of hesitation and uncertainty. MiÃ… ¡Ã… ¡ikovà ¡ offers another explanations of hedges: â€Å"†¦hedging is the qualification and toning-down of utterances†¦in order to reduce the riskiness of what one says† ( 13 Wales qtd. in Topics in Linguistics, 2007, p. 76 ), or hedges are â€Å" linguistic expressions that enable the speaker to avoid being too direct in her/his utterance† ( Watts qtd. in Topics in Linguistics, 2007, p. 76 . Mentioned previously, according to gender stereotypes, more frequent use of hedges is typical for woman speech. Concerning frequency of hedge using, the analysis of the personal ads shows following results: total number of elements in ads 2170 Men  ´s ads 3655 Women  ´s ads Figure 6: Number of hedges As it can be seen in the Figure 6, our analysis confirmed the gender stereotype that women use hedges in their utterances more frequently than men. While the women use the hedge expressions in every single advertisement, eight men do not use them at all. Average number of hedges per one women ´ s advertisement is 4,95 and per men ´s only 1,85. Probably, the women use them not to look very direct or confident. By showing certain degree of uncertainty (with the use of hedges), they try to express their feminine identities. 2.6. Talkativeness The theoretical part of the research paper discussed cultural and linguistic stereotype concerning talkativeness. In many societies, it is taken for granted women talk more than men. The analysis of the chosen personal advertisements reveals that the number of elements per advertisement is 182,75 in the women  ´s ads and the total number of elements is 3655, which is more than in the men  ´s ads, where the number of elements per advertisement is 108,5 and the overall amount of elements is 2170. The longest woman ´s advertisement has 354 elements (No 3), the shortest 76 elements (No 7). Surprisingly, the longest man ´s ad has 376 (No 11) elements, which is more by 22 elements than in the longest woman  ´s ad. The  shortest man ´s advertisement has only 33 elements (No 20). Although the analysis finds out that the women use more words, the number of the advertisements under analysis is not sufficient to be able to prove definitely the general myth that women are more talkative than men. V. CONCLUSION The aim of this research paper was to analyse men ´s and women ´s personal advertisements from the sociolinguistic viewpoint and to find out whether there are considerable differences between genders. Because personal advertisements are written by both sexes, the research paper tries to explore how language relates to gender and how stereotyped assumptions and beliefs are reflected in the text of online personal advertisements. The research paper dealt with 40 personal advertisements presented via the medium of the Internet. It concentrated on the issues of talkativeness and use of hedges from the perspective of gender stereotypes. The presumptions stated at the beginning of the analysis were proved as the research explored that the women used hedges more frequently than the men, as well as they were more talkative than the men. The supposition that men emphasise success in their self – description in order to attract potential partners was also proved. However; they do not stressed the appearance of their partners at  all. For the women, neither success nor their appearance and appearance of their partners were important. On the other hand, the women put greater emphasis on their personal qualities. To sum it up, the men and the women differed in their language. Some of the common beliefs and myths were proved, some not. In order to attract attention of a potential partner, both sexes probably varied they language according the expectations of the opposite gender. The extent of this research paper, as well as the number of the advertisements under the analysis did not allow going deeper into language of men ´s and women ´s advertisements. It was not possible to explore and analyse all the differences. However; this research paper can serve as an idea or a source for further research of personal advertisements. There is a great amount of issues which could be studied, such as gender differences in sentence structure or structure of  personal ads; differences in using formal, informal language; differences in doing grammar or spelling mistakes; way of self – identification; differences in intended relationships; way of opening and invitation for respond; use of abbreviations, emoticons; idiomatic and collocative expressions; and others.

Effect of Microhardness on Chemical Degradation

Effect of Microhardness on Chemical Degradation Abstract Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of chemical degradation media associated with brushing on surface roughness (Ra) and Knoop microhardness (KHN) analyses of different composites. Material and Methods: Eighty specimens were prepared for each composite: Grandio SO (Voco), Amaris (Voco), Filtek Supreme (3M/ESPE), Filtek LS (3M/ESPE). The specimens were divided into four groups according to the immersion in chemical degradation media for 7 days: artificial saliva (control), heptane, 0.02M citric acid, 70% ethanol. The surface of specimens was submitted to 10950 brushing cycles (200g load) in an automatic tooth-brushing machine with abrasive slurry. Surface roughness and microhardness measurements were obtained at baseline, after immersion in chemical degradation media and after brushing. Data were submitted to three-way repeated measures ANOVA and Tukey’s test (pResults: The KHN means for composites were: Grandio (153.5 ±35.9)a, Filtek Supreme (87.0 ± 24.9)b, Amaris (64.5 ±24.5)c, LS (69.0 ±15.3)c; for storage media: artificial saliva (97.3 ±46.7)a, ethanol (93.3 ±49.9)a, citric acid (95.8 ±42.1)a, heptane (87.6 ±36.7)b; and after treatments: after chemical degradation (104.8 ±49.7)a, baseline (93.8 ±42.5)b, after brushing (81.9 ±36.5)c. The Ra results for composites were: LS (0.15 ±0.25)a, Grandio SO (0.19 ±0.24)ab, Filtek Supreme (0.20 ±0.22)ab, Amaris (0.23 ±0.37)b; for storage media: artificial saliva (0.18 ±0.31)a, heptane (0.18 ±0.25)a, ethanol (0.20 ±0.26)a, citric acid (0.21 ±0.28)a; and after treatments: brushing (0.11 ±0.14)a, after chemical degradation (0.23 ±0.32)b, baseline (0.24 ±0.32)b. Conclusions: Brushing after chemical degradation reduced surface roughness values. In general, chemical degradation did not affect composites roughness, but microhardness was significantly reduced. Heptane produced the biggest reduction in composites microhardness. Clinical Relevance: The food-simulating solutions and brushing simulating alter the composites properties, and these alterations are material-dependent. Keywords: composites, chemical degradation, brushing, Knoop microhardness, surface roughness. Introduction Improvements on the composition and mechanical properties of resin-based materials along with increased esthetic demands have resulted in the enlarged use of direct composite restorations in anterior and posterior teeth [1,2]. These improvements provided more strength and durability to the composite restorations under the conditions of the oral environment. Most of the available composites contain a polymer matrix of dimethacrylate monomers, such as Bis-GMA, UDMA, and TEGDMA (organic phase), inorganic filler particles (dispersed phase) coated with a methyl methacrylate-functional silane coupling agent to bond the filler to the organic matrix, a photoinitiator system to allow photoactivation by light units and other minor additions including polymerization initiators, stabilizers and coloring pigments [3-5]. However, the critical oral environment conditions (pH changes or humidity) may increase the composite biodegradation over time [6]. Under oral conditions, dental materials may be exposed either intermittently or continuously to chemical agents present in saliva, food and beverages [1]. Previous studies have shown that some dietary foods and beverages can cause surface degradation of restorative materials [7-14]. Their constituents can soften the organic phase and promotes disintegration of the dispersed phase, altering the surface hardness [1,15]. Besides of chemical environment, the toothbrushing is another condition that influences the longevity of composites restorations in vivo. Although toothbrushing plays an important role in oral hygiene, the effects of abrasion constitutes another important issue on dental materials wear processes, which can result in alterations in surface roughness, loss of contour, staining and plaque retention [16]. There are several types of composites nowadays, such as nanohybrid, nanofill and microhybrid, which have the similar polymer matrix composition. However, the inorganic phase (size, type and distribution of filler particles) are different. Therefore, the effects of chemical degradation liquids and toothbrushing on surface roughness and microhardness of these types of composites must be reported. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the effects of chemical degradation associated with toothbrushing on surface roughness and microhardness of different composites. The null hypothesis tested was that the immersion in chemical degradation media and brushing are not able to modify the surface roughness and microhardness of the tested materials. Material and Methods Specimens preparation Eighty cylindrical specimens of each composite were fabricated (shade A3) using a metallic matrix with 2 mm in height and 3 mm in diameter. A mylar strip was placed over the composite and pressed with a glass plate to provide a flat surface, being removed after curing. The composites were applied in increments of 2 mm and cured on the top surface using LED photocuring unit (Elipar Freelight 2, 3M/ESPE, St. Paul, MN, USA) at 1200 mW/cm2 power density, activated for 40 s. After curing, they were stored in individual containers with deionized water for 24 h. Then, they were polished using a sequence of 1200, 2400 and 4000 grit aluminum oxide abrasive disks (Extec, Enfield, CT, USA) in a polishing device (DP-10, Panambra, Sà £o Paulo, Brazil). After polishing, all the specimens were immersed in deionized water at 37  ºC for 24 h. Four direct restorative materials were tested, as described in Table 1. Knoop microhardness measurements The microhardness measurement was performed with a microhardness tester (FM-700, Future-Tech, Tokyo, Japan), Knoop tip, under 25 g load for 10 s. Three indentations were performed 100  µm apart from each other, at the surface of the specimens. The means were determined as Knoop Hardness Number (KHN). Surface roughness analysis The mean surface roughness (Ra) was evaluated using a profilometer (MaxSurf XT 20, Mahr, Goettingen, Germany). The diamond stylus moved 2.5 mm long starting the first measurement 0.2 mm from the lower area of specimen. Three profile measurements were performed for each specimen at intervals of 0.25 mm and a final average was used. The mean Ra values were determined with a cut-off value of 0.8 mm, a transverse length of 0.8 mm, and a stylus speed of 0.1 mm/s. Chemical degradation media immersion The specimens of each composite were randomly divided according to the food-simulated substances tested (n=20). The solutions tested are mediums recommended by FDA (1976) to be used as food-simulating liquids [17]. Heptane P.A. (Synth – Labsynth, Diadema, Sà £o Paulo, Brazil) was used to simulate butter, fat meals and vegetable oils. Citric acid 0.02M (Synth) simulated beverages, vegetables, fruits and candies. Ethanol 70% (Zulu Hospitalar 70% Companhia Nacional de à lcool, Piracicaba, Sà £o Paulo, Brazil) simulated alcoholic beverages and mouthrinses. Artificial saliva was used as control and prepared according to Gohring et al. [18] using 22.1 mmol/l hydrogen carbonate, 16.1 mmol/l of potassium, 14.5 mmol/l sodium, 2.6 mmol/l hydrogen phosphate, 0.8 mmol/l boric acid, 0.7 mmol/l calcium, 0.4 mmol/l thiocyanate and 0.2 mmol/l magnesium. The specimens were kept in individual vials with 2 ml of each solution for 7 days at 37  ºC. After this period, the specimens were washed thoroughly, and stored in deionized water at 37  ºC, for 24 h. The microhardness and surface roughness were evaluated. Brushing protocols Subsequently, the experimental units were subjected to brushing abrasion in an automatic toothbrushing (TB) machine (ODEME Biotechnology – Joaà §aba, Santa Catarina, Brazil) which imparted reciprocating motion to 6 soft bristle toothbrush heads (Sanifill Ultraprofissional, Hypermarcas – Sà £o Paulo, Brazil). This apparatus provides linear brushing movements across the specimens at a speed of 120 cycles per min at 37 °C, with a double pass of the brush head over the surface. The top surface of resin composites cylinders were submitted to 10950 brushing stokes under a vertical load of 200 g with abrasive slurry, simulating one year of clinical situation [19]. The abrasive slurry consisted of fluoridated dentifrice (Colgate Tripla Aà §Ãƒ £o, Colgate-Palmolive, Sà £o Paulo, Brazil) and artificial saliva, in a ratio of 1:3, by weight [20]. Toothbrushes were replaced after the completion of each brushing cycles. After brushing, the specimens were kept in deionized water at 37 ºC, for 24 h. At the end of this protocol, the microhardness and surface roughness was obtained. Statistical analysis This experiment followed a factorial scheme of the 4x3x4 type. The experimental variables under study were composites [Grandio, Amaris, Filtek LS, Filtek Supreme], time [baseline, after chemical degradation (CD) and after brushing (TB)] and the food-simulating media [artificial saliva (AS), heptane (H), citric acid (CA) and ethanol (E)]. The variable responses were the mean roughness measurement value obtained in profilometer, and the average of three microhardness readings. Data were submitted to statistical analysis using the computer software Statistica for Windows (Statsoft, Tulsa, OK, USA). The inferential statistics consisted of three-way repeated measures ANOVA (composites, time, and chemical degradation media), in which the variable time was considered as a repeated factor, followed by Tukey’s test. The level of significance was the conventional value of 5%. Results Microhardness evaluation The mean KHN values of the composites after chemical degradation media are shown in Figure 1. The application of RM-ANOVA showed significant differences for the factors composites (p=0.0001), time (p=0.0001) and chemical degradation (p=0.0001). Grandio SO composite presented the highest KHN values for all times tested. Amaris and Filtek LS exhibited values significantly lower than Filtek Supreme and Grandio SO (Table 2). For the chemical degradation media factor, the immersion in heptane produced the lowest microhardness means, compared to the other tested media (Table 3). Regarding the different times, the microhardness (KHN) values significantly increased after immersion in chemical degradation media and decreased after brushing, compared to baseline means (Table 4). Surface roughness analysis The means of roughness surface (Ra) for the composites are shown in Figure 2. The application of RM-ANOVA showed no significant differences for composite (p=0.034) and time (p=0.626) factors. The roughness means obtained for Amaris composite were significantly higher than Filtek LS. Grandio SO and Supreme exhibited intermediate means (Table 2). For the chemical degradation media, no significant differences were obtained for surface roughness (Table 3). The Ra means after brushing were lower than at baseline and after chemical degradation CD (Table 4). Discussion The chemical environment is one aspect of the oral conditions which has an appreciable influence on the in vivo degradation of composites [21]. Some chemicals substances from food and drinks can lead to surface degradation of composite restorations, resulting in unaesthetic appearance and increased surface roughness, accelerating the wear of dental materials [22,23]. This degradation is mainly due to the softness of composite matrices with exposure to organic acids and various food and liquid constituents [24,25,12]. Previously published studies have reported that acidic conditions show a tendency to degrade glass ionomer cements, polyacid modified composite resins, and composite resins [9,26,10,27,11]. The present study was performed to investigate the Knoop microhardness and surface roughness of four composites, before and after simulating oral conditions. Hardness is defined as the resistance to permanent indentation or penetration [28,1]. It is used to predict the wear resistance of a material and its ability to cause abrasion opposing tooth structure [28]. The composites exposed in food-simulating media can suffer chemical softening, reducing their physico-mechanical properties. Changes in the composite hardness usually occur within the first 7 days after exposure to chemical solutions [21]. Therefore, this study conducted the initial readings of the hardness in the specimens after post-cure [1], and another reading after the exposure period of immersion. In the present study, specimens stored in heptane showed significantly reduction in microhardness, as also observed previously [14,28]. Heptane simulates butter, fatty meals and vegetables oil [14,1] and may damage the resin matrix,[12,28] producing cracks in the interface, and consequently, weakening the material.[14] It is questioned if alcohol-containing beverages may compromise the longevity of composites restorations [29], since it presents the potential of damaging polymers [1,12], by fully penetrating the resin matrix and promoting the release of unreacted monomers [13]. The partial dissolving of the resin matrix may result in the degradation of the filler-matrix interface, thereby impairing the flexural strength and hardness [14]. In this study, the concentration of ethanol solution (70%) was used according to previous [28] but it showed no significant effect in the microhardness of composites. The differences in hardness values compared to previous studies could be related to the surface characteristics of the composites, filler distribution and conversion rate [30]. Furthermore, the period of 24 h of storage before immersion in ethanol may lead to complete polymerization of the composites, reducing the presence of unreacted monomers on the surface [1,14]. The effects of intraoral organic acids, as citric acid, besides producing tooth erosion, can cause surface degradation of composites [9], favoring the breaking of bonds in Bis-GMA molecules of composites [24,11]. Despite of others studies that citric acid reduced the hardness of composites [7,9], in this study no differences were observed in the microhardness of the composites when immersed in citric acid for 7 days. Nevertheless, the period of storage may have been insufficient to promote differences in the mechanical properties of the specimens’ surface [7,14]. Differences in microhardness means among the composites exposed to the tested solutions were found and are related to their composition and particle content [14,29]. Grandio SO, Filtek Supreme and Amaris have similar matrix composition (Bis-GMA, UDMA, TEGDMA), however, differ in size and amount of filler particles (Table 1). The higher resistance of Bis-GMA to the degradation effects of immersion media can be explained by the fact that bis-acryl resin composite materials contain bifunctional acrylates, which cross-link to provide increased mechanical strength and resistance to weakening in the presence of solvents [28,31]. Grandio SO and Filtek Supreme present nanoscale particles, which provide better mechanical resistance compared to hybrid resins, superior polishing than microfilled resins, higher strength and reduced polymerization shrinkage [32]. Due to their nanoscale, these materials showed the highest microhardness values in this study. By the other hand, Filtek LS is constituted of silorane, with quartz and yttrium fluoride as inorganic filler, which increased hydrophobicity and reduced water sorption [33]. Differences in microhardness among Filtek LS and others composite could be attributed to the lower filler content (76% w/w), as observed by Yesilyurt et al. [14]. Therefore, the differences in composites compositions could have contributed to the differences in hardness. After simulated toothbrushing, there was a reduction in microhardness values. This fact may be due to changes on the surface of the resin matrix when immersed in the solutions before brushing. According to a previous study [2], the immersion in food-simulating media increased the exposure of filler particles by softening the matrix. Additionally, toothbrushing can change the surface of composites [2,34,35]. In clinical situation, the consumption of food or beverages occurs before brushing habits, making this association clinically relevant. Although an increase of the composite surface roughness and degradation after brushing have been previously reported,[2] significantly lower roughness means were obtained after brushing in this study. Likewise, previous studies showed that most of composites did not present significant changes by the immersion on chemical degradation media in surface roughness over time [2,9,15]. This study found differences on surface roughness of mycrohybid, nanofill and nanohybrid composites, as results of their differences in their compositions. Filtek LS, myycrohybrid composite, had the lowest surface roughness, probably due to low filler content. Filtek Supreme e Grandio SO had an intermediate smoother texture, whereas Amaris showed the roughest surface. Nevertheless, despite of these initial differences, the immersion in chemical solutions did not interfere in the final surface roughness. However, interaction between immersion in food-simulating media and simulated brushing decreased surface roughness, as observed by Turssi et al. [20] This may be attributed to the reaction of the solutions with the polymer matrix. Toothbrushing after the immersion on food-simulating media resulted in the removal of part of the organic matrix around the loosen fillers [2]. Then, the softened matrix have become mixed with the abrasive slurry, decreasing its abrasive potential [20]. Roughness surfaces of composite favors the accumulation of plaque, gingival inflammation, superficial staining and secondary caries. It is noteworthy that the effect of brushing on the composites depends on several factors, such as the type of toothpaste, type and shape of the brush bristles, the proportion of deionized-water solution, as well as speed and weight applied during simulation process. As these parameters were standardized for all groups, it can be suggested that the surface roughness varies with the size, hardness and percentage of composite particles, as reported previously [20,36]. The different treatments tested resulted in alteration of composite properties, and these alterations were material-dependent; thus, the null hypothesis tested was rejected. The present study is important for guiding the improvements of the present composite resins against the challenges they will face during clinical service. It is also relevant to state that esthetics represents only one of the reasons for composite resin restorations failure. Improvements in other areas such as bonding degradation, material deterioration and ability to prevent caries progression/activity should be also considered. Conclusion According to the limitations of this study, it can be concluded that: The microhardness means of the tested composites were influenced by the material; Toothbrushing reduced Ra values of the materials tested, but the solutions used for chemical degradation did not affect the results. Conflict of Interest The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Killer Bees Essay examples -- essays research papers

The Africanized Honey Bee is actually a variety of honeybee derived by hybridization from African honeybees naturalized in the western hemisphere. Because they are highly defensive and will attack perceived intruders more readily than the common European honeybee, they are also known by the popular name of â€Å"killer bees.†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Brazilian scientists imported African honeybee queens in the 1950’s in order to breed a honeybee for use in tropical climates. Some swarms escaped into the wild. Because they were highly adapted for tropical survival and had no natural competitors, they thrived and spread rapidly through South America, extending their range by as much as 500 km (300 mi) per year. By the 1980s, Africanized honeybees had reached Central America and soon colonized Mexico. In 1990, the first swarm was found in the United States. The bees spread from Texas to New Mexico and Arizona and then into California by 1994.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The bees reached an apparent climatic limit to their southern range in the middle of Argentina, and their range is expected to be similarly limited to the southern and coastal states in the United States. They have hybridized to some extent with resident wild and hive populations of European honeybees. However, many of the basic African honeybee traits remain, including rapid population growth, frequent swarming, minimal hoarding of honey, the ability to survive on sparse supplies of pollen and nectar, and a ...

Americas Crime Fighters Need DNA Fingerprinting Essay -- Genetic Argu

America's Crime Fighters Need DNA Fingerprinting Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a chemical structure containing a base sequence. Base pairs are genetic codes made up of four chemicals (Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine and Thymine) and each sequence differs in every person. Because DNA is so complex and varies immensely in individuals, it can be used like a fingerprint, hence the name DNA Fingerprinting. DNA can be found and analyzed in blood, semen, saliva, hair and skin--even decades old if properly stored. The process takes longer than simple fingerprinting and is very expensive, but the results are almost perfect in determining identity. While these tests are very accurate, there is a 1 in 50 billion chance that two people will have an identical match. According to Kate Brinton and Kim-An Lieberman, the applications of DNA Fingerprinting are mainly Criminal Identification and Forensics, Paternity and Maternity tests, and Personal Identification (Applications link). Many court cases have been resolved through DNA testing , and because of today’s technology, it should be used more often in all necessary circumstances. Thomas H. Murray from Case Western Reserve University stated in 1987, â€Å"The moral significance of humankind is no more threatened by peeking at the underlying musical notation, the base sequences, than is the score of Beethoven’s last symphony diminishing to that piece of work.† In other words he is saying that analytical results from a base sequence should not affect someone’s moral views on DNA testing. As to who should be able to analyze your DNA and how long it remains on record, results should be as available as any other form of identification. DNA testing was first developed in... ...cation of many people possible. Finally, when a person is monitored or screened in the workplace for possible illnesses, they must understand that it is beneficial for them as well as other employees in the workplace. Results relate to the presence of mutated DNA strands and should be reflected on the person’s current physical condition as well as their past. This makes any changes to the workplace environment more accurate and logical. If any instance calls for DNA testing, results should be filed when the issue is resolved. People need to know of any concerns with their DNA to determine possible solutions. These solutions can be preventative medications or a recommendation to work in safer environments. Whether it needs to be viewed by doctors, researchers, or for criminal investigations, results should be as available as any other form of identification.

Divorce in Todays Society Essay -- Marriage Family History Essays Pape

Divorce in Todays Society The Impact of Non-Traditional Families in the Twenty-First Century The image of the American family looks and functions very differently than families of the past few decades. Men and women raised in the 1950’s and 1960’s when programs such as â€Å"Ozzie and Harriet† and â€Å"Father Knows Best† epitomized the average family, are likely to find themselves in situations that have changed dramatically. Research claims that many family structures are common: single-parent families, remarried couples, unmarried couples, step families, foster families, multi-generational families, extended families, and the doubling up of two families within the same home. Marriage, divorce, and patterns of childbirth are some of the factors that have contributed to these significant changes in families. With these changes comes the possibility of remarriage and the creation of new families which bring together parents and children without blood ties. These are called â€Å"blended families† and are more prevalent today than thirty yea rs ago because divorce rates are rising and remarriages are much more common (Mahoney 40). These issues are the major factors that have had an impact on the structure of the American family. Significant changes are occurring in marriage patterns in the United States. Individuals are postponing marriage until later in life and more people are choosing not to get married. Current statistics indicate that the marriage rate between 1970 and 1990 fell almost thirty percent (Ahlburg and DeVita 24). Compared with the 1960’s marriages have a shorter average duration. A smaller portion of a person’s life is actually spent in marriage, despite gains in life expectancy. In their research, Dennis Ahlburg and Carol DeVita describe an explanation for these facts: While these facts often lead to speculation that the institution of marriage is crumbling, the number of marriages that occurred throughout the 1980’s was at an all time high. Roughly 2.4 million marriages were perfo rmed each year during the past decade. A careful look at marriage trends reveals how marriage patterns are creating new lifestyles and expectations. (21) Another issue which reflects a change of the American family is the trend of divorce. While 2.4 million marriages occurred in 1990, 1.2 million divorces occurred during that same year (Andrew 51). The trend of divorce i... ...aunched a new line of cards devoted entirely to non-traditional families. The cards never use the word â€Å"step† but most of the â€Å"Ties That Bind† cards are clearly aimed at people that have come together by remarriage. All are aimed at the vast and growing group of people who don’t identify with the old definitions of family, and who are finding ways to make their new families work. Bibliography Ahlburg, Dennis and Carol J. DeVita. â€Å"New Realities of the American Family.† Population Bulletin. Aug. 1992: 20-28. SIRS. Family, 4, 96. Andrews, Jan. Divorce and the American Family. New York: Library of Congress Catalog, 1978. Boyd, Monica and Doug Norris. â€Å"Leaving the Nest? The Impact of Family Structure.† Canadian Social Trends. 15 Oct. 1995: 14-17. SIRS. Family, 5, 58. Feifer, George. Divorce: An Oral Portrait. New York: The New Press, 1995. Herbert, Wray. â€Å"When Strangers Become Family.† U.S. News and World Report 29 Nov. 1999: 59-67. Mahoney, Rhona. â€Å"Divorce, Non-traditional Families and Its Consequences For Children.† Leland Stanford. mahoney@leland.stanford.edu. 20 Nov. 1997: 40-42. Stewart, Gail B. Teens and Divorce. San Diego: Lucent Books Inc., 2000.

Jon Benet Ramsey Case

Michael Pilkington 10/14/12 Ms. Chiolo Forensics JonBenet Ramsey Case Many people know about the JonBenet Ramsey case. This case had to do with when a young girl was killed and found in her own basement. In the JonBenet case there were problems with the investigation, different theories about the murder, and the media had an influence in the case. One problem with the JonBenet Ramsey case was that some evidence wasn’t collected.For example there was a flashlight found that could have been the murder weapon that wasn’t collected as evidence. Another problem was that some of the detectives ego got in the way of solving the case. For example Boulder, Colorado police denied help from the FBI, even though they have had no experience with murder cases that have national attention. One major problem was that the procedure that the police used for the case was improper. The police didn’t separate the parents even when they were both suspects. The media and the â€Å"co urt of public opinion† played a big role in the case.One way was that the media instantly blamed the parents for murdering JonBenet. The media had a couple of theories of how JonBenet was killed. One way was that JonBenet wet her bed and the mom got very mad and killed her. Another theory was that JonBenet’s brother killed her because she got a lot of attention from being in beauty pageants for girls, and he wanted more attention. The media trashed the Ramsey’s reputation by making people think that they were guilty. Since the media labeled the Ramseys guilty, people were close-minded to other ideas of what else could of actually happened.There was one theory though that was the most likely of being true. This theory was called the intruder theory. There were a couple of ways this was the most likely way JonBenet died. One piece of evidence that supports the intruder theory is that there was a unlocked basement window that had been recently opened and closed, and that an intruder could have gotten entry to the house from. Another piece of evidence was that there was DNA on JonBenet’s body that was male, and didn’t match another family member. Also there was a similar attack months later that was similar to the JonBenet Ramsey murder.There was a man who broke into a house (that is close by to the Ramsey house) and sexually assaulted a 14 year old girl. Upon reviewing how the investigation was done from the start it is apparent that the media and the Boulder Colorado police department did not help in solving the case. It is unfortunate that Mrs. Ramsey passed away and that the rest of the family has been unable to see justice done. I do believe in some of the other theories and hope that with the help of time and persistence with the Police and the FBI they will eventually solve the case.

Last Sacrifice Chapter One

I DON'T LIKE CAGES. I don't even like going to zoos. The first time I went to one, I almost had a claustrophobic attack looking at those poor animals. I couldn't imagine any creature living that way. Sometimes I even felt a little bad for criminals, condemned to life in a cell. I'd certainly never expected to spend my life in one. But lately, life seemed to be throwing me a lot of things I'd never expected, because here I was, locked away. â€Å"Hey!' I yelled, gripping the steel bars that isolated me from the world. â€Å"How long am I going to be here? When's my trial? You can't keep me in this dungeon forever!' Okay, it wasn't exactly a dungeon, not in the dark, rusty-chain sense. I was inside a small cell with plain walls, a plain floor, and well †¦ plain everything. Spotless. Sterile. Cold. It was actually more depressing than any musty dungeon could have managed. The bars in the doorway felt cool against my skin, hard and unyielding. Fluorescent lighting made the metal gleam in a way that felt harsh and irritating to my eyes. I could see the shoulder of a man standing rigidly to the side of the cell's entrance and knew there were probably four more guardians in the hallway out of my sight. I also knew none of them were going to answer me back, but that hadn't stopped me from constantly demanding answers from them for the last two days. When the usual silence came, I sighed and slumped back on the cot in the cell's corner. Like everything else in my new home, the cot was colorless and stark. Yeah. I really was starting to wish I had a real dungeon. Rats and cobwebs would have at least given me something to watch. I stared upward and immediately had the disorienting feeling I always did in here: that the ceiling and walls were closing in around me. Like I couldn't breathe. Like the sides of the cell would keep coming toward me until no space remained, pushing out all the air †¦ I sat up abruptly, gasping. Don't stare at the walls and ceiling, Rose, I chastised myself. Instead, I looked down at my clasped hands and tried to figure out how I'd gotten into this mess. The initial answer was obvious: someone had framed me for a crime I didn't commit. And it wasn't petty crime either. It was murder. They'd had the audacity to accuse me of the highest crime a Moroi or dhampir could commit. Now, that isn't to say I haven't killed before. I have. I've also done my fair share of rule (and even law) breaking. Cold- blooded murder, however, was not in my repertoire. Especially not the murder of a queen. It was true Queen Tatiana hadn't been a friend of mine. She'd been the coolly calculating ruler of the Moroi–a race of living, magic-using vampires who didn't kill their victims for blood. Tatiana and I had had a rocky relationship for a number of reasons. One was me dating her great-nephew, Adrian. The other was my disapproval of her policies on how to fight off Strigoi–the evil, undead vampires who stalked us all. Tatiana had tricked me a number of times, but I'd never wanted her dead. Someone apparently had, however, and they'd left a trail of evidence leading right to me, the worst of which were my fingerprints all over the silver stake that had killed Tatiana. Of course, it was my stake, so naturally it'd have my fingerprints. No one seemed to think that was relevant. I sighed again and pulled out a tiny crumpled piece of paper from my pocket. My only reading material. I squeezed it in my hand, having no need to look at the words. I'd long since memorized them. The note's contents made me question what I'd known about Tatiana. It had made me question a lot of things. Frustrated with my own surroundings, I slipped out of them and into someone else's: my best friend Lissa's. Lissa was a Moroi, and we shared a psychic link, one that let me go to her mind and see the world through her eyes. All Moroi wielded some type of elemental magic. Lissa's was spirit, an element tied to psychic and healing powers. It was rare among Moroi, who usually used more physical elements, and we barely understood its abilities–which were incredible. She'd used spirit to bring me back from the dead a few years ago, and that's what had forged our bond. Being in her mind freed me from my cage but offered little help for my problem. Lissa had been working hard to prove my innocence, ever since the hearing that had laid out all the evidence against me. My stake being used in the murder had only been the beginning. My opponents had been quick to remind everyone about my antagonism toward the queen and had also found a witness to testify about my whereabouts during the murder. That testimony had left me without an alibi. The Council had decided there was enough evidence to send me to a full-fledged trial–where I would receive my verdict. Lissa had been trying desperately to get people's attention and convince them I'd been framed. She was having trouble finding anyone who would listen, however, because the entire Moroi Royal Court was consumed with preparations for Tatiana's elaborate funeral. A monarch's death was a big deal. Moroi and dhampirs–half- vampires like me–were coming from all over the world to see the spectacle. Food, flowers, decorations, even musicians †¦ The full deal. If Tatiana had gotten married, I doubted the event would have been this elaborate. With so much activity and buzz, no one cared about me now. As far as most people were concerned, I was safely stashed away and unable to kill again. Tatiana's murderer had been found. Justice was served. Case closed. Before I could get a clear picture of Lissa's surroundings, a commotion at the jail jerked me back into my own head. Someone had entered the area and was speaking to the guards, asking to see me. It was my first visitor in days. My heart pounded, and I leapt up to the bars, hoping it was someone who would tell me this had all been a horrible mistake. My visitor wasn't quite who I'd expected. â€Å"Old man,' I said wearily. â€Å"What are you doing here?' Abe Mazur stood before me. As always, he was a sight to behold. It was the middle of summer–hot and humid, seeing as we were right in the middle of rural Pennsylvania– but that didn't stop him from wearing a full suit. It was a flashy one, perfectly tailored and adorned with a brilliant purple silk tie and matching scarf that just seemed like overkill. Gold jewelry flashed against the dusky hue of his skin, and he looked like he'd recently trimmed his short black beard. Abe was a Moroi, and although he wasn't royal, he wielded enough influence to be. He also happened to be my father. â€Å"I'm your lawyer,' he said cheerfully. â€Å"Here to give you legal counsel, of course.' â€Å"You aren't a lawyer,' I reminded him. â€Å"And your last bit of advice didn't work out so well.' That was mean of me. Abe–despite having no legal training whatsoever–had defended me at my hearing. Obviously, since I was locked up and headed for trial, the outcome of that hadn't been so great. But, in all my solitude, I'd come to realize that he'd been right about something. No lawyer, no matter how good, could have saved me at the hearing. I had to give him credit for stepping up to a lost cause, though considering our sketchy relationship, I still wasn't sure why he had. My biggest theories were that he didn't trust royals and that he felt paternal obligation. In that order. â€Å"My performance was perfect,' he argued. â€Å"Whereas your compelling speech in which you said â€Å"if I was the murderer' didn't do us any favors. Putting that image in the judge's head wasn't the smartest thing you could have done.' I ignored the barb and crossed my arms. â€Å"So what are you doing here? I know it's not just a fatherly visit. You never do anything without a reason.' â€Å"Of course not. Why do anything without a reason?' â€Å"Don't start up with your circular logic.' He winked. â€Å"No need to be jealous. If you work hard and put your mind to it, you might just inherit my brilliant logic skills someday.' â€Å"Abe,' I warned. â€Å"Get on with it.' â€Å"Fine, fine,' he said. â€Å"I've come to tell you that your trial might be moved up.' â€Å"W-what? That's great news!' At least, I thought it was. His expression said otherwise. Last I'd heard, my trial might be months away. The mere thought of that–of being in this cell so long–made me feel claustrophobic again. â€Å"Rose, you do realize that your trial will be nearly identical to your hearing. Same evidence and a guilty verdict.' â€Å"Yeah, but there must be something we can do before that, right? Find proof to clear me?' Suddenly, I had a good idea of what the problem was. â€Å"When you say â€Å"moved up,' how soon are we talking?' â€Å"Ideally, they'd like to do it after a new king or queen is crowned. You know, part of the post-coronation festivities.' His tone was flippant, but as I held his dark gaze, I caught the full meaning. Numbers rattled in my head. â€Å"The funeral's this week, and the elections are right after †¦ You're saying I could go to trial and be convicted in, what, practically two weeks?' Abe nodded. I flew toward the bars again, my heart pounding in my chest. â€Å"Two weeks? Are you serious?' When he'd said the trial had been moved up, I'd figured maybe it was a month away. Enough time to find new evidence. How would I have pulled that off? Unclear. Now, time was rushing away from me. Two weeks wasn't enough, especially with so much activity at Court. Moments ago, I'd resented the long stretch of time I might face. Now, I had too little of it, and the answer to my next question could make things worse. â€Å"How long?' I asked, trying to control the trembling in my voice. â€Å"How long after the verdict until they †¦ carry out the sentence?' I still didn't entirely know what all I'd inherited from Abe, but we seemed to clearly share one trait: an unflinching ability to deliver bad news. â€Å"Probably immediately.' â€Å"Immediately.' I backed up, nearly sat on the bed, and then felt a new surge of adrenaline. â€Å"Immediately? So. Two weeks. In two weeks, I could be †¦ dead.' Because that was the thing–the thing that had been hanging over my head the moment it became clear someone had planted enough evidence to frame me. People who killed queens didn't get sent to prison. They were executed. Few crimes among Moroi and dhampirs got that kind of punishment. We tried to be civilized in our justice, showing we were better than the bloodthirsty Strigoi. But certain crimes, in the eyes of the law, deserved death. Certain people deserved it, too–say, like, treasonous murderers. As the full impact of the future fell upon me, I felt myself shake and tears come dangerously close to spilling out of my eyes. â€Å"That's not right!' I told Abe. â€Å"That's not right, and you know it!' â€Å"Doesn't matter what I think,' he said calmly. â€Å"I'm simply delivering the facts.' â€Å"Two weeks,' I repeated. â€Å"What can we do in two weeks? I mean †¦ you've got some lead, right? Or †¦ or †¦ you can find something by then? That's your specialty.' I was rambling and knew I sounded hysterical and desperate. Of course, that was because I felt hysterical and desperate. â€Å"It's going to be difficult to accomplish much,' he explained. â€Å"The Court's preoccupied with the funeral and elections. Things are disorderly–which is both good and bad.' I knew about all the preparations from watching Lissa. I'd seen the chaos already brewing. Finding any sort of evidence in this mess wouldn't just be difficult. It could very well be impossible. Two weeks. Two weeks, and I could be dead. â€Å"I can't,' I told Abe, my voice breaking. â€Å"I'm not †¦ meant to die that way.' â€Å"Oh?' He arched an eyebrow. â€Å"You know how you're supposed to die?' â€Å"In battle.' One tear managed to escape, and I hastily wiped it away. I'd always lived my life with a tough image. I didn't want that shattering, not now when it mattered most of all. â€Å"In fighting. Defending those I love. Not †¦ not through some planned execution.' â€Å"This is a fight of sorts,' he mused. â€Å"Just not a physical one. Two weeks is still two weeks. Is it bad? Yes. But it's better than one week. And nothing's impossible. Maybe new evidence will turn up. You simply have to wait and see.' â€Å"I hate waiting. This room †¦ it's so small. I can't breathe. It'll kill me before any executioner does.' â€Å"I highly doubt it.' Abe's expression was still cool, with no sign of sympathy. Tough love. â€Å"You've fearlessly fought groups of Strigoi, yet you can't handle a small room?' â€Å"It's more than that! Now I have to wait each day in this hole, knowing there's a clock ticking down to my death and almost no way to stop it.' â€Å"Sometimes the greatest tests of our strength are situations that don't seem so obviously dangerous. Sometimes surviving is the hardest thing of all.' â€Å"Oh. No. No.' I stalked away, pacing in small circles. â€Å"Do not start with all that noble crap. You sound like Dimitri when he used to give me his deep life lessons.' â€Å"He survived this very situation. He's surviving other things too.' Dimitri. I took a deep breath, calming myself before I answered. Until this murder mess, Dimitri had been the biggest complication in my life. A year ago–though it seemed like eternity–he'd been my instructor in high school, training me to be one of the dhampir guardians who protect Moroi. He'd accomplished that–and a lot more. We'd fallen in love, something that wasn't allowed. We'd managed it as best we could, even finally coming up with a way for us to be together. That hope had disappeared when he'd been bitten and turned Strigoi. It had been a living nightmare for me. Then, through a miracle no one had believed possible, Lissa had used spirit to transform him back to a dhampir. But things unfortunately hadn't quite returned to how they'd been before the Strigoi attack. I glared at Abe. â€Å"Dimitri survived this, but he was horribly depressed about it! He still is. About everything.' The full weight of the atrocities he'd committed as a Strigoi haunted Dimitri. He couldn't forgive himself and swore he could never love anyone now. The fact that I had begun dating Adrian didn't help matters. After a number of futile efforts, I'd accepted that Dimitri and I were through. I'd moved on, hoping I could have something real with Adrian now. â€Å"Right,' Abe said dryly. â€Å"He's depressed, but you're the picture of happiness and joy.' I sighed. â€Å"Sometimes talking to you is like talking to myself: pretty damned annoying. Is there any other reason you're here? Other than to deliver the terrible news? I would have been happier living in ignorance.' I'm not supposed to die this way. I'm not supposed to see it coming. My death is not some appointment penciled in on a calendar. He shrugged. â€Å"I just wanted to see you. And your arrangements.' Yes, he had indeed, I realized. Abe's eyes had always come back to me as we spoke; there'd been no question I held his attention. There was nothing in our banter to concern my guards. But every so often, I'd see Abe's gaze flick around, taking in the hall, my cell, and whatever other details he found interesting. Abe had not earned his reputation as zmey–the serpent–for nothing. He was always calculating, always looking for an advantage. It seemed my tendency toward crazy plots ran in the family. â€Å"I also wanted to help you pass the time.' He smiled and from under his arm, he handed me a couple of magazines and a book through the bars. â€Å"Maybe this will improve things.' I doubted any entertainment was going to make my two-week death countdown more manageable. The magazines were fashion and hair oriented. The book was The Count of Monte Cristo. I held it up, needing to make a joke, needing to do anything to make this less real. â€Å"I saw the movie. Your subtle symbolism isn't really all that subtle. Unless you've hidden a file inside it.' â€Å"The book's always better than the movie.' He started to turn away. â€Å"Maybe we'll have a literary discussion next time.' â€Å"Wait.' I tossed the reading material onto the bed. â€Å"Before you go †¦ in this whole mess, no one's ever brought up who actually did kill her.' When Abe didn't answer right away, I gave him a sharp look. â€Å"You do believe I didn't do it, right?' For all I knew, he did think I was guilty and was just trying to help anyway. It wouldn't have been out of character. â€Å"I believe my sweet daughter is capable of murder,' he said at last. â€Å"But not this one.' â€Å"Then who did it?' â€Å"That,' he said before walking away, â€Å"is something I'm working on.' â€Å"But you just said we're running out of time! Abe!' I didn't want him to leave. I didn't want to be alone with my fear. â€Å"There's no way to fix this!' â€Å"Just remember what I said in the courtroom,' he called back. He left my sight, and I sat back on the bed, thinking back to that day in court. At the end of the hearing, he'd told me–quite adamantly–that I wouldn't be executed. Or even go to trial. Abe Mazur wasn't one to make idle promises, but I was starting to think that even he had limits, especially since our timetable had just been adjusted. I again took out the crumpled piece of paper and opened it. It too had come from the courtroom, covertly handed to me by Ambrose–Tatiana's servant and boy-toy. Rose, If you're reading this, then something terrible has happened. You probably hate me, and I don't blame you. I can only ask that you trust that what I did with the age decree was better for your people than what others had planned. There are some Moroi who want to force all dhampirs into service, whether they want it or not, by using compulsion. The age decree has slowed that faction down. However, I write to you with a secret you must put right, and it is a secret you must share with as few as possible. Vasilisa needs her spot on the Council, and it can be done. She is not the last Dragomir. Another lives, the illegitimate child of Eric Dragomir. I know nothing else, but if you can find this son or daughter, you will give Vasilisa the power she deserves. No matter your faults and dangerous temperament, you are the only one I feel can take on this task. Waste no time in fulfilling it. –Tatiana Ivashkov The words hadn't changed since the other hundred times I'd read them, nor had the questions they always triggered. Was the note true? Had Tatiana really written it? Had she–in spite of her outwardly hostile attitude–trusted me with this dangerous knowledge? There were twelve royal families who made decisions for the Moroi, but for all intents and purposes, there might as well have only been eleven. Lissa was the last of her line, and without another member of the Dragomir family, Moroi law said she had no power to sit on and vote with the Council that made our decisions. Some pretty bad laws had already been made, and if the note was true, more would come. Lissa could fight those laws–and some people wouldn't like that, people who had already demonstrated their willingness to kill. Another Dragomir. Another Dragomir meant Lissa could vote. One more Council vote could change so much. It could change the Moroi world. It could change my world–say, like, whether I was found guilty or not. And certainly, it could change Lissa's world. All this time she'd believed she was alone. Yet †¦ I uneasily wondered if she'd welcome a half-sibling. I accepted that my father was a scoundrel, but Lissa had always held hers up on a pedestal, believing the best of him. This news would come as a shock, and although I'd trained my entire life to keep her safe from physical threats, I was starting to think there were other things she needed to be protected from as well. But first, I needed the truth. I had to know if this note had really come from Tatiana. I was pretty sure I could find out, but it involved something I hated doing. Well, why not? It wasn't like I had anything else to do right now. Rising from the bed, I turned my back to the bars and stared at the blank wall, using it as a focus point. Bracing myself, remembering that I was strong enough to keep control, I released the mental barriers I always subconsciously kept around my mind. A great pressure lifted from me, like air escaping a balloon. And suddenly, I was surrounded by ghosts.